Terminology

The following explanations of Pali terms are provided to assist in understanding the meaning of the Pali key terms used in this text.

bhāvanā — or mental development is what in English is generally and rather vaguely called “meditation.” It can be accurately defined in terms of its purpose, which is to cultivate and develop the vast potential of the mind in order to overcome the unsatisfactory nature of the internal and external circumstances in which we find ourselves. ¹² Buddhist meditation is a conscious awareness technique given by the Buddha, by which incorrect perceptions of reality will cease, allowing the true nature of things and phenomena to be seen - things and phenomena are are anicca, dukkha and anattā. The cultivation and development of the mind is the means whereby erroneous perceptions are corrected, and its practice is comprised of two distinct types of techniques, known as samatha and vipassanā. The purpose of Buddhist meditation is to attain ¹³ nibbāna (cessation of mentality and materiality), or in other words, to gain release and freedom from the dukkha of saṁsāra, or put another way, to secure the cessation of rebirth, aging, sickness and death. ¹⁴

According to many texts, bhāvanā is the development of wholesome qualities or potentialities or doctrines. One has to ¹⁵ distinguish two kinds:

1. samatha-bhāvanā — development of calm/tranquility, i.e.,

concentration (samādhi). 2. vipassanā-bhāvanā — development of insight/introspection,

i.e., wisdom (paññā). ¹⁶

Calm meditation is by its nature the development of tranquility (samatha bhāvanā), which is essentially concentration meditation. Concentration meditation calms the mind and its mental formations (saṅkhāra), and leads to higher states called jhānas.

The development of insight (vipassanā bhāvanā) improves introspection and cultivates inner knowledge and wisdom (ñāṇa, paññā) or so-called insight (vipassanā). This practice leads the mind to final extinction (parinibbāna), and was a method discovered by the Buddha himself as he strove to achieve insight into the true nature of reality.

According to the Nettipakaraṇa, the first eight kasiṇas are samatha objects and the last two — space and consciousness kasiṇas — are vipassanā objects. ¹⁷

Right Mindfulness and Right Effort in the Noble Eightfold Path are two factors that embrace the entire field of meditation and are common elements in both samatha bhāvanā and vipassanā bhāvanā.

The term bhāvanā is often found compounded with words implying the object of meditation, and examples include karuṇābhāvanā, m u d i t ā b h ā v a n ā , u p e k k h ā b h ā v a n ā , a s u b h a b h ā v a n ā , aniccasaññābhāvanānā, mettabhāvanā, and indriyabhāvanā. When the term bhāvanā occurs in the Tipiṭaka, it generally indicates the practice or cultivation of meditation and the verb bhāveti is used to denote the act, “ to practice” or “to cultivate”, as forms of mental development. The ¹⁸ word citta-bhāvanā as “cultivation of mind” or “development of mind” is used, referring to the practice of samādhi meditation, expounded in the Visuddhimagga of Buddhaghosa.

jhāna — [from jhā (1) “to meditate”, “to contemplate” (a given object), “to examine closely”, “think upon”; (2) from jhāpeti “to burn”, “ to be on fire”, “to eliminate” (the hindrances); fig. “to be consumed”, “to waste away”, “to dry up” (in the latter use)] corresponds to the English term “absorption”, and refers chiefly to the four meditative absorptions of the fine-material sphere (rūpajjhāna or rūpāvacarajjhāna) and the four absorptions of the immaterial sphere (arūpajjhāna or arūpāvacarajjhāna).

They are achieved through the attainment of a state of full concentration or absorption (appanā) on an object, during which there is a complete though temporary suspension of fivefold sense-activity and the five hindrances (pañca nīvaraṇā). In the commentaries, the definition of the ¹⁹ word jhāna is according to the two derivation given above, and the term is traced to either “to think” (jhāyati) or “to make burn” (jhāpeti). The verb jhāyati occurs frequently in the Nikāyas in the sense of “ meditation” , and the verbal noun jhāyi (“he who thinks”), is used in the ²⁰ sense of “meditator.” But the verb jhāpeti used to define jhāna is found only in one place in the text. ²¹

The Sanskrit form of jhāna is dhyāna, which in the Yoga philosophy has a very different meaning. Buddhaghosa Thera in his Samanta-Pāsādikā defines jhāna as “to burn opposed states in jhāna” (paccanīkadhamme jhāpetī ti jhānaṃ), or “to think upon a suitable object (gocaraṃ), which is in direct connection with thinking (jhāyati). So, the term jhāna is to be understood in a collective sense as the progress of mind development and the mental image taken from an external object (kammaṭṭhāna) which burns the defilements of the mind, whereby the meditator experiences supernormal consciousness in the intensity of samādhi. ²²

In many suttas, like the Sāmaññaphalasutta and the Mahāvedallasutta , five formula attributes are described for the ²³ jhānas (jhānaṅga, from jhāna+aṅga), namely: initial application (vitakka), sustained application (vicāra), joy (pīti), happiness (sukha) and onepointedness (ekaggatā, which is samādhi), and which all are induced by five hindrances (pañca nīvaraṇāni): sensuous desire (kāmacchanda), ill-will (vyāpāda/byāpāda), sloth and torpor (thīna-middha), restlessness and remorse (uddhacca-kukkucca), and skeptical doubt (vicikicchā).

For the sake of clarity, the term jhāna will be used in this study to imply the development of the mental processes of samādhi and vipassanā.

kammaṭṭhāna — [kamma “work”, “action” + ṭhāna “place”, “ base”] lit. “working-ground” (i.e. for meditation), or “instruments of meditation” is the term for objecst of meditation for bhāvanā, leading to Arahantship (“yāva arahattaṃ kammaṭṭhānaṃ kathesi”). It is used as “ ²⁴

exercise of meditation” or “basis of action” by the Buddhist commentators (Buddhaghosa Thera in his Visuddhimagga and Anuruddha Thera in his Abhidhammattha Saṅgaha) to denote both – the 38 or 40 subjects of meditation and the methods of practicing them. A main term that has been applied in the suttas and in the Abhidhamma to describe the senses and the mental impressions derived therefrom is āḷambana or ārammaṇa , lit. “causing a thing to be hung, to be supported”. The term implies both the object perceived and the representative images or impression of them, which are formulated in the mind, causing the thought-process to function. ²⁵

In this study, kammaṭṭhāna will be used to imply the objects of the development of the mental processes of samādhi and vipassanā. For example: the first jhāna is a state and the ten kasiṇas are the kammaṭṭhānas, the objects through which first jhāna is attained.

kasiṇa (Vedic kṛtṣna) means “entire”, “whole” or “totalities”, refers to external visual objects/devices (kammaṭṭhāna) of samatha bhāvanā used to produce and develop concentration of mind and attain the four absorptions (jhāna). Usually enumerated as ten (dasa kasiṇa; kasiṇa-āyatanāni bhāventi). As a technical term, kasiṇa includes three interpretations, as follows:

kasiṇabhāvanā — means “development of kasiṇa” and kammaṭṭhāna means literally “working-ground” (i.e., for meditation), or object of meditation. This term as a designation for the bhāvanā exercises is found only in the commentaries. In the suttas, the word is used in a concrete sense for “field of activity or occupation”, for example agriculture or trade. In the present study the term kammaṭṭhāna is used in the sense of “meditation (bhāvanā) object”.

kasiṇajhāna — absorption attained by kasiṇanimitta. kasiṇamaṇḍala — the word maṇḍala means “circle”; the disk of the sun or moon; a round, flat surface; an enclosed part of space in which something happens, a circus ring; anything comprised within certain limits or boundaries, a group; and border as part of a bhikkhu’s dress, hem, gusset. In the context of kasiṇa the word maṇḍala mainly has been used in the commentaries.

kasiṇārammaṇa — the primary meaning of the Pāli word ārammaṇa is “foundation”, and from this a range of meanings occur: “ support”, “help”, “footing”, “expedient”, anything to be depended upon as a means of achieving what is desired, i. e. “basis of operation", “ chance”; “condition”, “ground”, “cause"; a basis for the working of the mind & intellect; i.e. sense-object, object of thought or consciousness, the

outward constituent in the relation of subject & object, object in general; “being supported by”, “depending on”, “centered in”, “ concentrated upon”. Ārammaṇa generally means an “object” of thought and is the expression used in the Commentaries for any object in the field of meditation.

kasiṇanimitta — a “sign”, “mark”, or “mental image”, obtained from contemplation of the device. In relation to meditation, the word nimitta is generally translated as “mark” or “sign”, lit. “that which marks or indicates”. It is a mental reflex, image (with reference to jhāna); the term denotes the mental attributes of sentient existence. According ²⁶ to the Visuddhimagga, nimitta are twofold: (1) learning sign (uggahanimitta), and (2) counterpart sign (paṭibhāga-nimitta). The ²⁷ Abhidhammattha-saṅgaha enumerates nimitta as threefold, where the first division is the preliminary sign (parikammanimitta). The three ²⁸ kinds, that is, the preliminary sign, learning sign and counterpart sign, do not appear in the Piṭakas. There the use rather suggests an association of ideas, conceptually different to the more definitely visualized “image” in some instances of the “counterpart sign” described in the following chapters. ²⁹

kasiṇāyatana — the word āyatana (not found in the Vedas) means (1) “stretch”, “extent”, “reach”, “compass”, “region”; “sphere”, “ place”; “position”, “occasion”; (2) “exertion”, “doing”, “working”, “ practice", “performance”; and (3) “sphere of perception” or sense in general, “object of thought”, sense-organ & object; “relation”, “order”. It is a technical term, used to express the psychological relation between the mind and matter. The “dasa kasiṇāyatana” refer to the field (khetta) or the sphere of the mind and thoughts. As they are the site and cause of sensation, perception, etc., they are called the cakkhu-āyatana and rūpaāyatana respectively. Similarly, the term āyatana is applied to other senses and their objects. The ten kasiṇas can be classed as āyatana only because of their objective relation to the mind and thoughts, since they are the material and mental objects of the corresponding senses. The first eight kasiṇas pertain to the senses of sight and touch, and the last two to that of the mind. But mental images (nimitta) of all of them pertain to the mind itself.

The object selected for meditation, such as a kasiṇa, is termed parikammanimitta, lit. “the mark of preliminary exercise”.

paññā-bhāvanā — development of wisdom, i.e. vipassanābhāvanā.

sutta — sutta, texts/teachings found in Tipiṭaka, attributed to the Buddha or his closest companions.

samatha — the word samatha [saṃ+ā+dhā “to collect” or “to bring together,” thus suggesting the concentration or unification of the mind] means tranquility or serenity; calm; quietude of heart, which is ³⁰ the concentrated, unshaken, undefiled and peaceful state of mind. ³¹ Outside of a meditative context this word occurs as the “setting” of legal questions (adhikaraṇa samatha). In the context of meditation, to ³² develop samatha similarly means to “settle” the mind in the sense of making it steady, quiet, one-pointed and concentrated. ³³

According to Samathasutta, samādhi calms mental wavering and agitation and establishes an inward serenity, which is described as tranquility of mind (cetosamatha). Samatha is a synonym of samādhi ³⁴ (concentration), cittekaggatā (one-pointedness of mind) and avikkhepa (undistractedness). In the scriptures, samatha is always found with ³⁵ vipassanā (samatho ca vipassanā). Samatha, a pre-requisite for ³⁶ meditation, lays the foundation for practicing insight meditation which is the direct way to higher wisdom (paññā). Theravada school — or “the doctrine of the elders” refers to the teaching of the senior Buddhist monks, based on the suttas, given in the Tipiṭaka. Theravada, which has remained closest to the original teachings of the Buddha, and emphasizes the attainment of selfliberation or enlightenment (nibbāna) through one's own efforts. Wisdom (paññā), moral virtues (sīla), concentration (sati) and mental development (samādhi) and are the key elements of the way to self-liberation. Although the Theravada road is to dedicate oneself to full-time monastic life, there is an important role and place for lay followers as well.

Tipiṭaka — (ti meaning “three”, and piṭaka meaning “baskets”) is a collection of the earliest grouping of Buddha’s teachings that are the foundation of the Theravada School. Three baskets refer to the three divisions of the Theravada Buddhist Canon, viz: Vinaya-piṭaka, Suttapiṭaka and Abhidhamma-piṭaka, which constitute the Pāli Canon.

vipassanā — [vi “right”, “special” and pass(ati) “to see”] is translated as “inward vision”, “insight”, “intuition”, “introspection” “to ³⁷ see in many ways” (vividhaṃ), which mean “to see, to penetrate an object thoroughly”. It is an intuitive light flashing forth and exposing the truth ³⁸ of the impermanence, the suffering and the impersonal and unsubstantial mature (anicca, dukkha, anatta) of all corporeal and mental phenomena of existence (nāma-rūpa); insight wisdom (vipassanā-paññā) that is the decisive liberating factor in Buddhism, the culmination of which leads directly to the stages of holiness, or Ariya. ³⁹

Notes

Amadeo Solé-Leris, Tranquillity and Insight: An Introduction to the Oldest Form of 12 Buddhist Meditation, (Kandy: BPS, 1999), p. 21.
Ibid., pp. 21-22.
Tawaya Sayadaw, Knowing and Seeing, (Singapore: Pa-Auk Meditation Center, 2010), p. 29.
Galmangoda Sumanapala, Buddhist Meditation Methods & Psychotherapy, (Kandy: 15 BPS, 1995), p. 17.
Ibid., p. 35.
“yañca ākāsakasiṇaṃ yañca viññāṇakasiṇaṃ, ayaṃ vipassanā” — Vicayahārasampāta Ne 21.
Paravahera Vajirañāṇa Mahāthera, Buddhist Meditation in Theory and Practice, 18 (Malaysia: Buddhist Missionary Society, 1987), pp. 25-26.
Ñānatiloka Mahāthera, Buddhist Dictionary: A Manual of Buddhist Terms and 19 Doctrines, Ñānaponika Thera (ed.), (Chiang Mai: Silkworm Books, 2007), p. 82.
For example, Mahāgovindasutta DN 19, etc.
Mātikākathā Ps 3.10.
Paravahera Vajirañāṇa, Buddhist Meditation in Theory and Practice, pp. 23-25.
“The Great Classification” MN 43.
Davids Rhys, Pāḷi English Dictionary, (Delhi: Montilal Banarsidass Publications, 1997), pp. 24 461-462.
Paravahera Vajirañāṇa, Buddhist Meditation in Theory and Practice, pp. 30-31.
Vism. 123. 26
Vism. 125. 27
Ācariya Anuruddha, A Comprehensive Manual of Abhidhamma (Abhidhammattha 28 Saṅgaha), Tr. by bhikkhu Bodhi, (Kandy: BPS, 1999), p. 331.
Vism. 108. 29
Davids Rhys, Pāḷi English Dictionary, p. 1537.
Mehm Tin Mon, The Essence of Buddha Abhidhamma, p. 357.
I. B. Horner (tr.), The Book of the Discipline (Vinaya-Piṭaka), Vol. I, (London: Luzac & 32 Company Ltd., 1949).
Gunapala Piyasena Malalasekera (ed.), Encyclopedia of Buddhism, Vol. VII, (Sri Lanka: 33 Government of Ceylon, 1992), pp. 673-674.
Paṭhamasamādhisutta AN 4.92, Dutiyasamādhisutta AN 4.93, Tatiyasamādhisutta AN 4.94 etc.
Ñāṇatiloka Mahāthera, Buddhist Dictionary: A Manual of Buddhist Terms and 35 Doctrines, p. 184.
Samāpatti Vagga, AN 2.172.
Davids Rhys, Pāḷi English Dictionary, p. 1405.
Paravahera Vajirañāṇa, Buddhist Meditation in Theory and Practice, p. 22.
Ñāṇatiloka Mahāthera, Buddhist Dictionary: A Manual of Buddhist Terms and 39 Doctrines, p. 231.